违法行政行为治愈论

依法行政原则要求行政必须依法进行。行政所依之“法”不仅包括实体法，也包括程序法；不仅包括形式的法，也包括实质的法。行政行为违反上述之法，构成违法行政行为。根据违法情节、危害程度，违法行政行为的法律后果应是多元的，既包括通过撤销、确认无效等手段否定其效力的后果，也应包括通过追认、补正、转换等手段，消除瑕疵，维持其法律效力的后果。我国法律对违法行政行为的法律后果基本是否定的，这主要反映在《行政复议法》、《行政诉讼法》及相关单行立法中。对违法行政行为法律后果的立法态度，不仅影响纠纷解决机关的裁决方式及法律所欲保护的利益，也反映一国在程序与实体、形式法治与实质法治、形式正义与实质正义上的价值取向与路径选择。我国法律没有区分不需要、不适宜否定的行政行为与其他违法行政行为，对其法律后果均一概否定，这破坏法律的安定性，不利于保护公共利益，也损害行政经济与效率。因此，在一定条件下，应允许违法行政行为通过治愈手段，消除其瑕疵，继续维持其法律效力。本书从违法行政行为的法律后果入手，对行政法治愈制度的理论基础、现实状况、治愈方式、适用范围以及治愈对现行法律制度产生的影响等问题进行探讨。导论主要介绍本论题研究背景、研究价值、研究现状、研究思路与框架。第一章重点探讨治愈的基本理论问题，包括违法行政行为的表现形态和法律后果、治愈概念的界定、治愈的理论基础等。治愈旨在消除行政行为之瑕疵（违法），使其由违法变为合法，属于违法行政行为法律后果之一种。因此，详细阐释违法行政行为形态，并明确违法行政行为的多元法律后果，是研究治愈制度的逻辑起点。为确定研究对象、限定研究范围，有必要对论题作出大致界定。治愈概念界定部分从治愈的概念、性质（是不是行政法律责任）、对象、内容、主体等方面对治愈进行了概略描述。作为行政法制度，治愈的理论基础是公共利益本位论，即当行政行为存在违法，但其仍然体现法律追求的公共利益，并且该种公益比违法侵害的法益更值得保护时，适用治愈手段符合优先保护公共利益之要求。治愈是以实质正义为价值追求的，它有利于行政经济与效率。但由于它对形式法治的突破、对轻微违法的容忍，必须对其施加严格限制。第二章重点介绍域内外治愈制度立法及实践状况。行政法的治愈制度起源于民法的相关理论与实践，是典型的大陆法系国家制度。大陆法系许多国家在行政程序法中明确规定了治愈制度，没有明确立法的国家多通过行政判例确认治愈制度。英美法系国家尽管没有关于治愈的成文立法，法院对于行政机关违反程序的行政行为也并非一概撤销，而是在违法行为保护的公益与其侵害的法益之间进行权衡，根据优先保护的利益灵活解释行政行为违反程序规则的重要性，借以达到维持或否定行政行为之目的。我国现行主要立法对治愈持否定态度，但仍有个别法律中部分法条包含了实为治愈制度的规定。由于缺乏明确的制定法依据，司法机关在审理适合治愈的违法行政行为案件时，往往面临困惑和尴尬。基于此，有必要建立我国的行政法治愈制度。第三章至第五章分别论述违法行政行为治愈的三种方式：追认、补正、转换。追认是指因欠缺管辖权或因法律依据本身违法导致行政行为违法时，由有管辖权的行政主体或有权立法主体对该违法行政行为所作的事后认可。追认具有溯及效力。它包括两种形式：一是行政追认，即有权行政主体对无管辖权主体所作部分行为的追认，并非所有的权限瑕疵行为都可追认。被追认行为的作出主体不因追认而获得持续管辖权。二是立法追认，即立法主体有权以新的合法的规范性文件取代旧的违法的规范性文件，并明确规定新规范溯及既往至旧规范实施之日，以此使依据旧规范作出的违法行政行为变为合法行政行为的制度。立法追认可以使无授权依据、授权内容不明确或依据违法导致的违法行政行为的瑕疵得以治愈。立法追认对行政主体相关行政事务的授权，是一种持久授权。立法追认是通过消除违法行为依据瑕疵来达到治愈违法行为之目的。补正是通过弥补行政行为所欠缺的程序、形式、方式等非实质性的合法要件，消除行政行为的违法性，使其由违法行政行为变为合法行为，继续维持其效力的制度。补正分为两种：行政主体和行政相对人进行的补正是积极补正，客观条件的变化使行为违法性自然消除的情形是消极补正。相对人补正和消极补正仅针对授益行政行为的瑕疵。补正必须受严格的条件限制，即行政行为违反或欠缺的合法要件对行政行为结果不产生实质性影响。对轻微程序或形式要件欠缺之瑕疵的补正具有溯及效力，对于非实质性实体要件欠缺之瑕疵的补正，自补正之日起发生效力。转换是违法行政行为包含另一合法行政行为的要件，且具有相同的目的时，将违法行政行为转变为另一合法行为的制度。撤销重作行政行为虽能达到转换制度之目的，但转换具有撤销重作无可替代之优势。可撤销行政行为与无效行政行为均可适用转换方式。可转换的行政行为瑕疵类型包括程序违法、适用法律错误以及认定事实错误。转换需受到严格的条件限制。追认、补正、转换都是单纯公法上的表示行为，非具体行政行为。第六章作为本书的结论，首先总结本书基本观点和主要结论。瑕疵行政行为的形态多样，法律后果是多元的。违法行政行为在一定条件下可被治愈。治愈的方式包括追认、补正与转换。治愈可扩张适用于不当行政行为。治愈对行政救济制度产生广泛影响，后者应作出相应调整。如相对人对行政主体的治愈行为不服时，应视为对原行政行为不服，应以原行政行为为对象提起行政诉讼，可以治愈行为本身的违法作为诉讼理由。相对人对补正、转换行为不服时，应以原行政行为的作出主体为被告。相对人对追认行为不服时，如果原行为的作出主体不具备行政主体资格，则以追认主体为被告，如果原行为的作出主体具备行政主体资格，但却不具备所涉事项的管辖权时，可以根据方便相对人的原则，由相对人在原行政主体和追认主体中选择其一作为被告。但相对人一旦选择，即不得变更被告。相对人对治愈行为不服时，计算复议或诉讼期限应以治愈行为发生之日为准，但如果治愈行为发生在原违法行政行为救济期限届满后的，应视为相对人的救济期间届满，不应以治愈行为发生之日起算救济期间。治愈也将对行政诉讼证据制度和法院审判带来影响。为规范违法行政行为的治愈制度，我国应在未来行政程序立法中全面规定违法行政行为法律后果制度，包括治愈制度。在行政程序法出台前，可通过法律解释增加治愈制度，在行政程序法出台后，应删除行政复议法和行政诉讼法中关于违法行政行为法律后果的规定。同时，应对相关法律作相应修改。关键词：违法行政行为 治愈 追认 补正 转换AbstractAs a principle，administrative actions should be repealed or affirmed void when they are illegal，and as a exception，some are not suitable to be repealed or affirmed void though they are illegal.Considering public interest，administrative cost and efficiency，under certain conditions，illegal administrative actions can be cured.Curing means are ratification，mend，conversion，which can eliminate defects in administrative actions，turn the illegal actions into legal actions，and so maintain legal effect of the actions.The system of exception is subject of the article.The article starts with legal consequence，discusses the theoretical basis，status in quo，curing means，application scope and impact on current legal system.The introduction deals with research background，significance，status in quo and the frame.The first chapter discusses the basic theory of the cure system，including forms and legal consequence of illegal administrative actions，the definition and the theoretical basis of cure，and so on.Aiming at eliminating defects in administrative action，the cure is one of the legal consequence of illegal administrative action.Therefore，it is logic starting point of researching the cure to explain particularly the forms and multiplex legal consequences of illegal administrative actions.In order to limit the object and scope of research，it is necessary to define the thesis.The part of the definition introduces mainly the concept，property （legal liability？），object，content and subject of the cure.The theoretical basis of the cure is the theory of public interest standard.Namely，when illegal administrative action still accords with public interest the statute pursues which prior to the interest the illegal action harms，the measure of the cure should be taken.The cure pursues substantive justice，administrative economy and effi ciency.But it should be strictly confined because the cure breaches the formal rule of law and gives loose to slight defects.The second chapter introduces emphatically status in quo of legislation and practice on the cure at home and abroad.As a typical system of continental law system，the cure in administrative law origins from civil law.Many countries in continental law system regulate the cure system in administrative procedure law.Others confirm the system by administrative prejudication.Even though there are not the statutes concerning the cure，the courts in common law system do not revoke the illegal administrative actions without exception.On the contrary，the courts will weigh between the interest the illegal action embodies and the interest it harms，and explain the importance of the violated procedure regulation in order to maintain or deny the administrative action.The present statutes in China basically take negative attitude towards the cure，but some articles imply the cure.Without explicit statutes，the courts are often at a loss when judging a case concerning the illegal administrative action which can be cured.So it is necessary to establish our country's cure system in administrative law.The chapters from the third to the fifth discourse respectively upon the means of the cure，ratification，mend，conversion.Ratification is to authorize afterwards the subject without jurisdiction by the lawful subject，which takes retroactive effect.Ratification includes two forms，administrative ratification and legislative ratification.The former is to ratify the subject without jurisdiction by the lawful administrative subject.Not all administrative actions with jurisdiction flaw can be cured.The ratified subject does not hold the authorized jurisdiction except the disputed action.The latter is that lawful legislative subject replaces old unlawful regulatory document with a new lawful one.Legislative ratification can cure the illegal administrative actions without authorization，with ambiguous authorization，or with illegal basis.The jurisdiction from legislative ratification is continuous.Legislative ratification cures the illegal action by eliminating the basis defects in administrative actions.Mend can eliminate the flaws in administrative actions，transform the illegal actions into legal actions，and maintain their effect by supplementing such immaterial conditions as procedure，form，manner that administrative actions lack.Mend includes two forms，the one is the active mend way that administrative subjects and private parties take，and the other is the passive mend way that the changes of objective conditions eliminate the flaws.The mend that private party takes and passive mend only cure the flaws in beneficial administrative actions.The condition of mend is that the lack conditions is non-substantive to the administrative action.The mend aiming at procedure flaws takes retroactive effect.The mend aiming at the lack non-substantive substantiality conditions takes effect from the day the mend is taken.Conversion is to convert the illegal administrative action into other legal administrative action when the former contains the important conditions in the latter and they have the same objective.The system of revoking and making a new administrative action cannot replace the conversion though it can achieve the same objective as the conversion.The conversion can aim at revocable and void administrative actions.The flaws the conversion can cure include procedure defects， improper application of law，inaccurate confirmation of fact.The conversion has strict conditions.Ratification，mend and conversion are not specific administrative action but pure expression in public law.The sixth chapter is the conclusion of this article.It concludes the basic viewpoints and some proposals.And it discourses the cure of improper administrative actions.Then the section discusses the legislation of the cure and the impact of the cure on the system of administrative remedy system.The future administrative procedure law should stipulate multiplex legal consequences of illegal administrative actions，including the system of cure.The system of cure should be supplemented by legal interpretation before administrative procedure law is enacted.The provisions concerning the legal consequences of illegal administrative actions in administrative reconsideration law and administrative litigation law should be deleted and other laws concerned should be altered after administrative procedure law is enacted.The original illegal action is the target of prosecution when the private party denounces the cure with the reason of the dissatisfied cure.The defendant is the subject who took the original illegal action when the private party denounces mend and conversion.When the private party denounces ratification，the ratifying subject is the defendant if the original subject is not qualified of administrative subject；and the ratifying subject or the o riginal subject is the defendant if the original subject is qualified of administrative subject.However，the defendant cannot be altered once the private party chooses the one of them.The time limit of administrative remedy starts with the time the cure is exercised when the private party denounces the cure.But the time limit of administrative remedy expires when the cure comes after the time limit of remedy to the original action expired.The system of cure impacts the system of administrative litigation evidence and trial.Key words：Illegal Administrative Action Cure Ratification Mend Conversion

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